Later Vedic Period

• Sources of Information: Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
• Other sources:
• Brahmanas - The Detailed commentaries/ explanations on the Vedas.
• Aranyakas (forest books)- Explains metaphysics & symbolism of sacrifice. Upanishads or books on philosophy or deeper knowledge about ‘aatma’, ‘brahma’ etc. They are antiritualistic.

Geographical Expansion

• Aryans became generally familiar with the major portion of the Gangetic valley where they gradually settled. Western Ganga-Valley was called ‘Aryavarta’
• Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, Several Himalayan peaks and Vindhya mountains (indirectly) are mentioned.

Society

• Visible 4-fold varna system and appearance of several ‘jaatis’ or castes made the social system complex.
• Untouchability appeared; women’s position degraded as they no longer got formal education.
• Gotra was the place where cattle resided together with ‘janas’ and later developed into an identity for the ‘janas’.
• Nishad, Chandala and Shabar were the untouchables mentioned. Guests were called ‘Goghna’ (cow-killer).
• Niyoga too was considered a negative  activity.
• Male members of upper three varnas were called dvija or twice born. Only these were entitled to Upanayan i.e. wearing the sacred thread.
• Women like Gargi Gotra & practice of gotra exogamy and Maitreyi accomplished in the knowledge arena; Gargi outwitted Yajnavalkya in a philosophical discourse.
• Sati and Child Marriage were still largely absent.
• 4-fold ‘ashram’ (stages) for 4 ‘purusharthas’ (goals)
• Brahmacharya (Celibate Student) for knowledge i.e. Dharma.
• Grihastha (Householder) for wealth and progeny i.e. ‘artha’ and ‘kama’.
• Vanaprastha (hermit in retreat) for spiritual wisdom.
• Sanyasa (Renunciation) for liberation i.e. Mukti/Moksha. 

Political System

• Janas evolved to become Janapadas; Hastinapur and Indraprastha were capitals of Kuru ‘janapada’.
• Frequent battles among these ‘janapadas’ were fought for territory.
• Authority of the ‘rajana’ became more evident and a support staff called ’ratnin’; they were 12 jewels of the king, worked for ‘rajana’.
• Chiefship became hereditary.
• Still, there was no standing army.
• Rajana started various sacrifices like ‘Rajsuya’ (coronation), ‘Ashwamedh’ (to become ruler of all directions i.e. ‘Chakravarti’)        and           ‘Vajpeya’ (revitalization to the aging ‘rajana’).
• Dependence on Sabha and Samiti reduced. Women were not allowed to attend these assemblies.
• Vidhata completely disappeared.
• Term Rashtra, indicating territory first appeared in this period.
• Rajana assumed titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Sarvbhumi, Virat.

Economy

• Iron (krishna/shyama ayas) was discovered and use of fire for clearing forest for cultivation increased.
• Agriculture of multiple crops put limitation on nomadic nature; cattle rearing continued.
• Wheat, Barley, Rice, Beans, Moong Urad and Sesamum were cultivated.
• Surplus produce led to Bali and Bhaga (1/6th or 1/12th) i.e. customary contributions (minor taxes) to the Kings treasury.
• Treasurer was called Samgrahitri and Bhagdukha collected the taxes and Vaishya were only taxpayers.
• Shataman Krishnala are believed to be coins used but has no archaeological backing; there is reference to money lending (Shatapatha Brahmana describes a usurer as ‘kusidin’).
• Various arts and crafts like smelting, smithery or carpentry, weaving, leather-working, jewellery- making, dyeing and pottery-making, glass hoards and bangles also find mention.
• Commerce and trade are indicated by mention of sea voyages.
• Pottery type: Painted Grey Ware (PGW).

Religious Aspect

• Varun and Indra, the most important Gods of Rig Vedic age, lost prominence in later Vedic phase.
• Prajapati or Adipurush became the Supreme God in later Vedic phase.
• Some of the other minor gods became prominent, such as Vishnu (conceived as the preserver and protector of people) and Rudra (the god of animals).
• Some of the social orders too adopted their own deities. For example, Pushan (who was supposed to look after cattle) came to be regarded as the god of the Shudras.
• Rituals, sacrifices and requirement of supervising priest (Purohita) made religious life complex.
• Few instances of idol worship are reported. Magic and Omen entered the socio-religious life.

However, towards the end of Later Vedic age, a strong reaction began to emerge against priestly domination, against cults and sacrifices, especially in the land of Panchala and Videha where, around 600 BCE, the Upanishads were compiled.

Key Concepts	Sources
Gotra	Atharva Veda
Purusashukta Hymn (Four-fold division of society)	Rig Veda (Tenth Mandala)
First three ashramas (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha)	Chhandogya Upanishad
Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, Sannyas)	Jabala Upanishad
Samsara (transmigration of soul)	Brahadarankya Upanishad
Sabha and Samiti as the twin daughters of Prajapati	Atharva Veda
’Satyamev Jayate’	Mandukya Upanishad
Doctrine of ‘Trimurti’	Maitrayani Upanishad
Mention of the ‘Great Flood’	Satpatha Brahamana
Kshatriyas’ precedence over Brahmanas	Atreya Brahamana
Mention of the eastern and western seas	Satpatha Brahmana
Origin of the Universe	Rig Veda (Tenth Mandala)

Important Terms  Vedic Period

Terms	Meaning/Function
Jivagribha and Ugra	Police Officials Probably  Meant For Dealing With  The Criminals
Spasa	Spy
Vidhatha	An assembly meant for secular, religious and military purpose
Sabha	Assembly ( performed judicial functions)
Sabhavati	Women who attended the assembly. Practice of women attending it was stopped in later-Vedic times.
Samiti	Folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business.
Madhyamasi	Mediator in Disputes
Bhagadugha	Tax Collector or  Revenue Collector
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Suta	Charioteer
Palagala	Messenger
Akshvapa	Accountant
Kshata	Keeper of the King’s household
Aranyakas (Forest Book)	These are Vedic texts composed by hermits (tapasvee)
Govinkartana	Keeper of Games and Forests
Athapati	Chief Judge
Takshan	Carpenter

Vedic Texts

Vedic texts are broadly categorised into two parts, namely, ‘shruti’ and ‘smriti’.

SHRUTI	·         Shrutis’ are the texts ‘that is heard’ or product of ‘Godly revelation’ to the great sages (rishis) while in meditation (‘dhyaan’). ·         The four Vedas and Samhitas are included in the ‘shrutis’.
SMRITI	·         ‘Smritis’ on the other hand are those that are recollected by normal humans. ·         The detailed commentaries/ explanations on the Vedas (Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads), 6 Vedangas and 4 Upavedas make the smritis.